Research+Wiki-Charlie,+Erin,+Girija

=Research Wiki=


 * Term Notes**

Nehru -
 * Born on November 14, 1889 at Allahabad, India to Motilal Nehru and Swarup Rani Nehru
 * Studied law at Harrow School, Trinity College, Cambridge, London's Inner Temple
 * Became supporter and follower of Gandhi, although more an internationalist and modernist, more political
 * Protested British policies such as salt tax and segregation, went to prison in 1921 for several months
 * Became secretary of Indian National Congress in 1923
 * Stayed in Switzerland for 20 months to improve wife's health in 1925
 * Became secretary again in 1927
 * Gandhi promoted Nehru for president of INC, won election in 1929
 * Imprisoned in 1930 for continued protests
 * Imprisoned in 1932 for building socialist political movement in INC
 * UK declared India ally in 1939 during World War 2, INC led protest
 * Imprisoned in 1940 civil disobedience campaign
 * Imprisoned in 1942 for continued protests
 * Supported plan by British Labour Party to divide India into two countries: Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan
 * India became independent in August of 1947, became prime minister and foreign minister
 * Supported democratic and socialist government
 * Encouraged people to vote, made following for Congress Party
 * Improved infrastructure, women's rights, land ownership, industry (production rose by 7% each year), hydroelectric power
 * Obtained aid from Soviet Union and United States
 * Had stroke in January 1964, died on May 27

Mohammed Ali Jinnah -
 * Islamic faith, wanted separate Muslim state, led to creation of Pakistan
 * Called "Quaid-i-Azam" (Great Leader) by Pakistanis
 * Born December 25, 1876 in Karachi
 * Attended Sing Madrasasah High School (1887), Mission High School, studied law at Lincoln's Inn (1892)
 * Returned to India in 1896, began practicing law in Bombay, building law firm
 * Participated in 1906 INC session (political party formed to advance Indian rights, dominated by Hindus)
 * 1910, joined Imperial Legislative Council (established after British reforms made elective offices for Indians)
 * 1913, joined the All-India Muslim League (organization loyal to British Crown, advancing Muslim rights)
 * Believed in Hindu-Muslim cooperation, Indian nationalism
 * Helped Lucknow Pact, pledging Hindu-Muslim unity, common effort against British rule
 * 1918, led public demonstration against British governor, called for democratic uprising
 * 1919, resigned from Imperial Legislative Council as sign of protest against British policies
 * Resigned from both INC and Muslim League for time period
 * Believed Gandhi's approach too Hindu, still advocated unity
 * Mid 1920s, sat in India's legislature, led those that favored alliance with Hindus
 * 1930, attended first Round Table Conference in London
 * Attempted to reserve seats for Muslims in Indian legislatures, Jawaharlal Nehru opposed these
 * 1934, Two-nation theory
 * Followed few Islamic traditions, not devout
 * Wanted to protect Muslim community, way to unify
 * 1937, INC won elections, rejected participation from Muslim League
 * March 23, 1940 Jinnah and the Muslim League declared Muslims should have separate nation located in northwestern/northeastern India
 * 1946, rioting between Muslims and Hindus
 * Began because of Jinnah's demands for direct action in achieving a separate nation
 * Jinnah worked to end violence
 * July 18, 1947 British House of Commons approved Indian Independence Act, creating India and Pakistan
 * August 14, 1947 became first leader, governor-general, of Pakistan
 * Troubled economy, created policy encouraging industrialization
 * Dislocation of Hindus and Muslims
 * Appointed men loyal to him as governors
 * Died September 11, 1948

Mohandas Gandhi:
 * Gandhi combined the Indian independence movement with Hindu beliefs
 * Believed strongly in nonviolence and civil disobedience
 * Born on October 2, 1869 in Porbandar--West India, owned by Britain.
 * Parents: Karamachand Gandhi and Putlibai
 * His parents were very religious and influenced Gandhi greatly.
 * His family lived with beliefs of ahimsa (nonviolence), and respect of all living things
 * Gandhi was not a good student as a child, and it worsened when he was married at age 13 by arranged marriage.
 * He went through a "rebellious phase" when he smoked, and lied, and adopted the "Western ways", but he soon returned to Hindu teachings
 * He began studying at Samaldas College, and started studying law because his family wanted him too. He was actually interested in medicine, but took law anyway because it allowed him to go to England
 * He dreamed of England and thought that he would be able to spend his time with famous writers and philosophers but instead he found a lot of discrimination against his race.
 * Entered Inner Temple, a law college in London in 1888
 * Came back to India and entered the bar in 1891, but he hated being a lawyer
 * Agreed to go to South Africa to work as a lawyer for a firm there.
 * When he went to South Africa he found a lot of injustice and discrimination in the British Colony, towards both Africans and Indians.
 * Gandhi worked against segregation, and when he was beaten for refusing to give his seat to a European he became a social injustice resistance leader overnight.
 * In 1894 he petitioned the BG gov't to reject a bill that denied Indians the right to vote, and although he failed his attempts brought attention
 * He lived a life of great self-discipline
 * In 1906 the South African gov't passed legislation that made Indians get fingerprinted so their movements could be controlled
 * That was extremely insulting and so Gandhi organized "satyagraha" which means "truth force"(no action/violence in return to oppression or violence…don’t get revenge)
 * Gandhi did not register and he was arrested--in jail he read Thoreau's "Civil Disobedience" and was influenced greatly.
 * In 1914 Gandhi won a compromise for Indians in SA, and it included ending taxes on formally contracted Indian laborers, recognizing Hindu and Muslim marriages as legal, and prohibiting the importation of contracted Indian labor.
 * Returned to India in 1915 after learning a lot in South Africa
 * During WWI, Gandhi didn't say anything bad about British rule, and even helped them recruit Indian soldiers but he disagreed with everything the British were doing that was paining his fellow Indians.
 * His Hindu philosophy developed further:
 * Aparigraha--rejection of material possessions that hinder spiritual development
 * Samabhava--work on his deeds without emotion, without any want to conquer the enemy
 * He believed more in getting the opponent to his side, rather than destroying an opponent.
 * After WWI, Britain passed new laws that arrested Indians that were against the government
 * Gandhi announced Satyagraha
 * But soon after, protesters became violent in 1919, and the British killed 400 Indians meeting at Amritsar.
 * Gandhi stopped the satyagraha, but entered a more political activist stage
 * IN 1920, he joined the INC
 * Reorganized it--less elitist and more stronger
 * A huge organization was formed with his method of satyagraha
 * Gandhi had boycotts of British goods for material simplicity, but again demostrators turned to violence in 1922 and Gandhi was arrested.
 * He served two years in prison but was let out in 1924 because he had bad health.
 * Gandhi began to use the satyagraha for the untouchable caste, and they soon got the right to use a temple road which let them support Congress.
 * At this time, the Congress was divided between Muslims and Hindus and there was a lot of tension
 * More tension developed when Britain in 1928 announced that in their new commission to study reforms, not one Indian representative was present.
 * THAT IS WHEN GANDHI & CONGRESS DEMANDED INDIAN INDEPENDENCE
 * He lead a satyagraha in 1930 to oppose salt taxes, leading the SALT MARCH
 * Gandhi and 78 of his followers marched to the sea to make their own salt, therefore breaking British law. They started on March 12, 1930 and made the 240-mile march. It was recorded by the press and new people joined the march every day. They arrived and started making salt on April 6, 1930. Anyone who made their own salt was arrested by the British. GANDHI WAS IMPRISIONED FROM MAY 1930 to JANUARY 1931.
 * In 1934, Gandhi leaves Congress
 * He said that they betrayed his beliefs by using nonviolence only as a means and not a principle
 * Preached to Indians to live a simple life without manufactured goods and he himself began to live that way.
 * In the mid-1930's Britain brought more reforms into the gov't and more Indians allowed into the bureaucracy.
 * Congress won elections among Hindus and Muslims but they didn't get much power
 * Indians were left as second-class citizens in their country.
 * During WWII when Britain was engaged in Germany, Gandhi demanded that Britain grand India it's complete independence (QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT).
 * People thought he was against the war, but Gandhi was only responding to the fact that Britain hadn't helped the tension between Hindus and Muslims, and also hadn't given any power to Indians.
 * Gandhi was arrested again in 1942 along with the rest of the leaders of Congress--Gandhi was in jail until 1944.
 * In 1945 the British Labour Party came and changed the laws towards India
 * They began to take steps to grant India independence
 * But what Gandhi and the other Congress leaders were shocked about was that Britain also decided to make Pakistan a separate state as predominantly Muslim.
 * Independence was promised no later than June 1948
 * ON AUGUST 15, 1947 INDIA GOT IT'S INDEPENDENCE
 * There was still tension and fighting going on between Hindus and Muslims, and Gandhi started fasting to tell Hindus to be nonviolent, and said that he wouldn't stop fasting until the riots start.
 * His efforts made many Hindu and Muslim extremists angry.
 * Gandhi gained the name "Mahatma" which means "great soul"
 * He not only wanted Indian independence but also wanted a society that focused on compassion and respect for everyone.
 * On January 30, 1948 Gandhi was assassinated as he walked on to a platform to speak at a prayer meeting, by Nathuram Godse, a Hindu extremist.

All-India Muslim League - Indian National Congress:
 * Founded December 31, 1906 as political organization for Muslims in British-ruled India
 * Promote loyalty to British government
 * Advance political concerns of Muslims
 * Prevent hostility from other groups
 * Became responsible for creation of Pakistan
 * INC agreed to separate electoral roles for Muslims in return for support of a common program of constitutional change
 * Conservative league leaders in favor of continued British presence, more provincial power, less central government
 * INC in favor of strong central government, increasing power of Indians over British (prevented cooperation between two groups)
 * 1935 Government of India Act, promised an elected government
 * League afraid government would favor Hindu beliefs, called on Jinnah for help
 * INC wins elections of 1937
 * Jinnah encouraged people of Muslim-majority provinces (Punjab and Bengal) to join league, made much lower entrance fees, portrayed Inc as "Hindu" party, accused INC of committing acts against Muslims
 * March 1940, Jinnah gives speech at Muslim league meeting calling Muslims a "nation"
 * 1945 and 1946 elections Muslim League won 75% of total Muslim vote (4.4% in 1937)
 * August 16, 1946 Direct Action Day violence begins in Calcutta, 4,000 deaths and 15,000 injuries
 * Adopted slogan "Islam in Danger" (Hindu domination after Indian independence)
 * Division of Punjab and Bengal
 * Millions of Muslims forced out of homes in India, millions of Hindus forced out of homes in Pakistan
 * Muslim League diminished in India after independence, lost power in Pakistan after death of Jinnah
 * Army and bureaucracy dominated political process
 * The first Indian organization that helped the people of India to have a voice in the way that they were being governed
 * Brought nationality and unity
 * Helped India win independence from GB
 * Development:
 * India was under the rule of the British East India Company, but when that rule expired Britain simply took over, which led to the large //Indian Rebellion of 1857//.
 * The rebellion was not a success, and because they didn't know what to do, a lot of the Indian leaders opted for European education
 * They learned the ways of European government and came back wanting to change government at home.
 * Didn't necessarily want to kick Britain out, but just modify their rule--British rule brought a strange unity
 * the more knowledge gave the Indians more power
 * In the 1880s Lord Ripon was viceroy of India and he reformed a bit, saying that he valued and wanted public support, so in 1882 it was suggested to start a "national congress" to show Indian opinion of government.
 * First meeting of the INC was on Dec. 28, 1885--private group of educated men, all Hindus. (Muslims who were the other religious and educated group were not invited)
 * They debated and passed resolutions in loyalty to Britain…but their resolutions only reflected issues of an educated class
 * Indian Civil Service
 * Representative government
 * Support for education
 * Indian development
 * Was not a legitimate group
 * Didn't have finances
 * No organization
 * No recruitment procedures
 * They usually had an annual meeting around Christmas time but the meeting areas changed and that influenced how many people showed up
 * The group was exclusive to educated men, and they all were loyal to British rule…they only wanted to modify it a little bit--they didn't want independence
 * It was formed to influence GB gov't not to get independence
 * Was not a real democratic movement
 * 1913 Gandhi returned from South Africa and joined the INC
 * Insisted on a democratic movement not elitist
 * New methods of action: non-violent protests.
 * By 1920 Gandhi made the INC into a program that got rid of Indian support of GB, he made it into a program that fought for independence.

Viceroy:
 * A representative of a home country sent to a colony to serve as a governor
 * Also called "governor general"
 * Has all the duties of a ruler while also the responsibility of colonizing the country
 * British governor generals in India between 1858 & 1935

Deforestation:
 * Deforestation in India started in the 19th century when the British took over
 * In 1823 Thomas Munro got rid of the forest conservator thinking that supply and demand would lead to someone privately starting conservation--that was a mistake and India suffered 40 years of logging without tree planting
 * Railroads and roadways built by the British didn't help the situation
 * Finally in the Indian Forest Act of 1878, forest reserves were set aside
 * Weren't always effective because herders led their animals to graze in the reserves because its where the grass and trees grew abundantly
 * Still happens today
 * Planting trees is now supported by villagers still cut trees and log, because it brings money
 * There is no real punishment and so corruption outweighs tree planting, and conservation.

British East India Company Sepoy Rebellion:
 * Private corporation formed to trade with wealthy kingdoms in Asia…lead to the conquest of India.
 * Demand for profits and powerful, advanced English weapons helped England to gain control of India.
 * The corporation eventually failed though, and the British Crown was forced to take over India
 * IN 1599, a petition was sent to Queen Elizabeth I for a charter to allow trade with the Orient
 * Lead by the demand for pepper, spices, and fine fabrics--all found in India.
 * India at the time was trade controlled by the Portuguese
 * IN 1600, The British East India Company was chartered and was sent on it's first voyage with cloth, glass, lead, tin and cutlery
 * The Company had MANY rivalries--battles fought with Portuguese, and East Indiamen, pirates and other hostile forces, but gradually trading posts and forts were established along the coastline and the British gained power
 * Under commanders like ROBERT CLIVE, the British won wars and power.
 * Supported by GB government
 * BY 1773, the company began to lose money and was almost bankrupt because of all the wars it fought.
 * Asked for help from the GB gov't and the gov't passed the Regulating Act of 1773
 * The Act gave $$ but also split trade between the company and
 * Eventually the company lost power--the charter was renewed periodically but it kept losing privileges.
 * IN 1793, BEIC lost monopoly over trade
 * IN 1813 trade was open to other parties.
 * By 1802 the entirety of India was under the control of BEIC and the British Parliament
 * BEIC was a join-stock company and soon overpowered gov't--courts were made, and laws for trade were regulated
 * INDIANS WERE DENIED RIGHTS TO HOLD OFFICE AND BE IN THE GOVERNMENT.
 * Back to when they began getting gov't help from GB, the company had many more problems
 * Taxes were extremely high on the Indians, and many peasants were forced to leave their lands during the 1820s and 1830s and so demand for goods was not met--that lead to famine and unrest.
 * Governor General Lord William Cavendish Bentinck (1828-1836) made reforms to better Indian life
 * Cut budgest and wages
 * Stopped constant expansion of the company, reducing military expense
 * Education
 * Freedom of Press
 * In 1833 BEIC charter was renewed by GB parliament but the trade rights were completely abolished, the company was completely to focus on ruling India
 * On Apr 22, 1854 the BEIC's charter expired and all rule was transferred over to British Parliament
 * Soon after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 broke out--showed how much the Indians despised the company
 * Direct British Government was instituted for the next 90 years until India got independence in 1947
 * BEIC ruled India for more than 100 years
 * One of the causes of the rebellion was the The political expansion of the east India companies were at the expense of native princes
 * The British controlled too much of India, about 2/3rds.
 * The spark that caused the revolt was new more accurate breech-loading Enfied rifles that had a grease cartridge, which the Sepoys feared was made from cow and pig fat.
 * The British recruited Sepoy troops to fight for them, and later on the Sepoy troops out numbered the British troops 10 to 1.
 * The Revolt began Sunday May 10, 1857, and ended in the April of 1859.
 * The first event was the uprising at the garrison in Meerut where the mutineers murdered every European they found.
 * After this event they marched to Delhi where they placed themselves under leadership of the impotent and bewildered Mogul Emperor Bahadur Shah
 * Throughout May and June the idea of mutiny and rebellion spread through the Ganges valley, the Rajputna, Central India, and some parts of Bengal.
 * On July 17 it was discovered that 200 European men, women and children had been murdered a month earlier at the rebellion of Cawnpore.
 * Within 6th months the Rebellion will have been broken and within 1 year British power will have been restored.


 * Bibliography:**

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"Indian Rebellion of 1857." //World History: The Modern Era//. ABC-CLIO, 2010. Web. 3 May 2010. . ======

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 "Indian National Congress." //World History: The Modern Era//. ABC-CLIO, 2010. Web. 3 May 2010. . ======

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 "Mohandas Gandhi: speech to the Indian National Congress (1942)." //World History: The Modern Era//. ABC-CLIO, 2010. Web. 3 May 2010. . ======

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 Stockdale, Nancy. "satyagraha." //World History: The Modern Era//. ABC-CLIO, 2010. Web. 3 May 2010. . ======

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 "Mohammed Ali Jinnah." //World History: The Modern Era//. ABC-CLIO, 2010. Web. 3 May 2010. . ======

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Sears, Stephen W. "The Horizon History of the British Empire." USA: American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc: 1973. (Page #135-175) Olson, James. "The Sepoy Rebellion of India." //Then Again//. N.p., 12 Sept. 2003. Web. 4 May 2010. . See Sir John Kaye and G. Malleson, //History of the Indian Mutiny// (6 vol., 1896); T. P. Holmes, //History of the Indian Mutiny// (3 vol., 1904–12); A. T. Embree, ed.,//1857 in India// (1963); S. B. Chaudhuri, //Theories of the Indian Mutiny// (1965). ======